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ExaScale Computing Study: Technology Challenges in Achieving by Peter Kogge (Editor & Study Lead)

By Peter Kogge (Editor & Study Lead)

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This AMB then talks to the on-card DRAM parts to convert from their parallel data to the protocol’s serialized format. The higher speed of the protocol is possible because each link is uni-directional and point-to-point, and multiple FB-DIMM cards are arranged in a daisy-chain fashion with separate links going out and coming back. Additional bandwidth is gained because this arrangement allows accesses to be pipelined both in terms of outgoing commands and returning data. A typical contemporary microprocessor has latencies of 1 cycle, 20 cycles, and 200 cycles to the L1 cache, L2 cache, and external DRAM respectively.

In both cases a memory controller is present either on the CPU, the north bridge, or as a separate chip, and whose purpose is to manage the timing of accesses to the DRAM chips for both accesses and for the refresh operations that are needed to keep their contents valid. In today’s cache-based memory systems, the processor reads and writes in units of words, but all transfers above the level of the L1 caches take place in units of cache lines which range from 32B to 128B. When there is a miss in the L1 cache, an entire line is transferred from L2 or from main memory.

Servers will need to be engineered as components in much larger systems, and will have to support large address spaces that will not burden embedded systems. Embedded systems, especially those developed for national security applications, often operate in hostile environment conditions for long periods of time, during which they cannot be serviced. Space is the obvious example, and to be useful in such an environment, one must be able to extend Exascale technology to be radiation hard. The architecture must be fault tolerant, and able to degrade gracefully when individual components inevitably fail.

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